Module 6 · Vocabulary in Depth · Lesson 22
Linkers & Discourse
Linkers and discourse markers are the connective tissue of fluent English — they signal contrast, cause, addition and sequence. Train the range examiners expect in Writing and Speaking.
Get talking · Section 1
5 min'She's talented; however, she rarely practises.' Does 'however' add or contrast? Try replacing it with 'moreover' — does the sentence still make sense?
In pairs: which linker sounds more natural in SPEECH — 'nevertheless' or 'but still'? Which is better for a formal essay?
Why might repeating 'and' or 'but' five times in an essay lower your Language score, even if the grammar is correct?
Grammar focus · Section 2
8–10 minDiscourse markers — signalling how ideas connect
Discourse markers tell the reader/listener HOW your next idea relates to the last one: contrast, addition, cause, result, or sequence. Using a RANGE of them (not just 'and'/'but') is rewarded on the Organisation criterion.
Examples
→ Addition: 'Moreover, the scheme has proved cost-effective.'
→ Contrast: 'However, not everyone agrees with the policy.'
→ Cause → effect: 'As a result, sales increased by 20%.'
→ Concession: 'Although the plan is expensive, it should pay off long-term.'
→ Spoken equivalent: 'But still, I think it's worth it.' (informal version of 'nevertheless')
Question 1.Which linker signals CONTRAST?
Question 2.Which linker signals CAUSE → EFFECT?
Question 3.Which register suits 'but still' best?
Question 4.'Although the plan is expensive, it should pay off.' — 'although' signals…
Question 5.What does the writer say about overusing ONE linker?
Quick check 1.What criterion rewards varied cohesive devices?
Quick check 2.Which pair BOTH signal addition?
Quick check 3.Where does most discourse marker sit in a sentence?
Vocabulary · Section 3
5–7 minWords & phrases to own
however
signals contrast with the previous idea.
"The hotel was cheap; however, the service was poor."
Finish: 'I like my job; however, …'
moreover / furthermore
add a further, often stronger point.
"The plan saves money. Furthermore, it reduces waste."
Add a 'furthermore' point to: 'Exercise is good for you.'
nevertheless
despite what was just said (formal contrast).
"The team lost; nevertheless, they played well."
Use 'nevertheless' about a recent setback of yours.
as a result / consequently
show a direct effect of something.
"Prices rose. As a result, fewer people bought cars."
Give a result of studying English every day.
although / even though
introduce a contrasting clause within one sentence.
"Although it rained, we still went hiking."
Complete: 'Although I was tired, …'
in addition (to this)
adds extra information to support a point.
"The course is free. In addition, materials are provided."
Add extra info to: 'This app is useful.'
on the other hand
introduces an opposing viewpoint.
"Some like the city; on the other hand, others prefer the countryside."
Give two views on remote working using this phrase.
in fact
emphasises a surprising or stronger truth.
"The exam wasn't hard; in fact, it was one of the easiest."
Use 'in fact' to correct a common assumption.
what is more
adds a stronger, often surprising point.
"The flat is cheap; what is more, it's close to the station."
Add a stronger point to a plan you have.
despite / in spite of
introduce a contrast (+ noun/-ing, not a clause).
"Despite the traffic, we arrived on time."
Complete: 'Despite the weather, …'
Activate · use it within minutes
Complete each sentence with a suitable linker.
The film was long; ___, it was very enjoyable.
It rained all day. ___, the match was cancelled.
___ the high price, the hotel was fully booked.
She's very shy; ___, she gave a brilliant speech.
Write two short paragraphs about working from home, one using CONTRAST linkers, one using ADDITION linkers.
Paragraph 1 (contrast): ...
Paragraph 2 (addition): ...
Tap an item on the left, then tap its match on the right.
Pronunciation · Section 4
3–4 minPausing and intonation around discourse markers
Say it aloud
- • Say: 'The plan was risky. // However, // it worked.' — pause slightly after 'However'.
- • Practise the rise-fall on 'Moreover,' at the start of a sentence.
- • Read aloud: 'Although the exam was hard, / I think I passed.' — link 'although…hard' as one breath group.
- • Contrast spoken 'but still' (fast, no pause) with written 'nevertheless' (clear pause after).
- • Drill: read 5 sentences, each starting with a different linker, pausing consistently after each.
Reading · Section 5
8–10 minWhy examiners listen for the SHAPE of your argument
Read the passageTap to openTap to hide
Cambridge B2 First examiners are trained to notice not just whether an answer is grammatically correct, but whether ideas are LINKED in a way that shows control of the language. Two candidates can make identical points, yet score differently on Organisation purely because of how those points are connected.
The weakest answers rely almost entirely on 'and' and 'but'. These are perfectly correct words, but their overuse signals a limited range. A stronger answer reaches for a variety of discourse markers matched precisely to the logical relationship intended: 'however' for genuine contrast, 'moreover' for building an additional point, 'as a result' for showing consequence, 'although' for concession within a single sentence.
Register awareness matters just as much as range. 'Nevertheless' belongs in a formal essay; 'but still' belongs in an informal email or spoken exchange. Using 'nevertheless' in a casual message to a friend can sound stiff and overly formal, just as using 'but still' in a formal report can sound underqualified. Strong candidates match the FORMALITY of the linker to the task's required register.
Finally, placement and punctuation matter. Most discourse markers open a new sentence and are followed by a comma: 'However, the results were disappointing.' Some, like 'although' and 'despite', join clauses within one sentence and follow different grammar rules — 'although' takes a full clause, while 'despite' takes a noun or -ing form. Mixing these up ('despite the weather was bad') is a very common error that instantly caps the Language score.
The practical habit is simple: before writing an essay or article, plan the LOGICAL SHAPE of the argument first — point, counterpoint, result, conclusion — then choose linkers that match that shape, varying them across paragraphs rather than repeating the same one throughout.
Question 1.What can make two grammatically identical answers score differently on Organisation?
Question 2.What is the weakness of relying on 'and' and 'but'?
Question 3.Where does 'nevertheless' belong?
Question 4.What's a common error with 'despite'?
Question 5.What should candidates plan before choosing linkers?
Q1.Overusing 'and' and 'but' can lower an Organisation score.
Q2.'Nevertheless' and 'but still' are always interchangeable in any register.
Q3.'Despite' should be followed by a noun or -ing form, not a full clause.
Q4.Planning the logical shape of an argument before writing is unnecessary.
Listening · Section 6
8–10 minA student and tutor discussing an essay draft
Listening audio
Tap play to listen. Drag the timeline to jump anywhere.
Show transcript
Sofia:I've written my essay, but I think I've used 'and' and 'but' way too much.
David:Let's look. Here you wrote: 'Working from home saves money and it's flexible but some people feel isolated.' What could replace 'but'?
Sofia:Maybe 'however'? 'Working from home saves money and is flexible. However, some people feel isolated.'
David:Much better. Now this sentence: 'Companies save on office space and this reduces costs.' Could you use a result linker instead of 'and this'?
Sofia:'Companies save on office space. As a result, costs are reduced.'
David:Perfect. What about adding a stronger extra point after that?
Sofia:'Moreover, employees report higher job satisfaction.'
David:Excellent range. Now, be careful with 'despite' in your next paragraph — you wrote 'despite it was raining'.
Sofia:Oh, I should use 'although it was raining', or 'despite the rain'.
David:Exactly — 'despite' needs a noun or -ing, not a full clause. Fix that and your Organisation score will jump.
Question 1.What problem does Sofia identify in her own essay?
Question 2.Which linker does Sofia use to replace 'and this' for a cause-effect sentence?
Question 3.What mistake does Sofia make with 'despite'?
Question 4.What linker does Sofia use to add a stronger extra point?
Exam skills · Section 7
5 minDiscourse markers for Writing & Speaking
🎯 Vary your linkers
Use a controlled RANGE of discourse markers matched to register and logic.
- Plan the logical shape (point / contrast / result) before choosing linkers
- Match formality: 'nevertheless' (formal) vs 'but still' (informal)
- Check grammar after the linker: 'despite' + noun/-ing, 'although' + clause
- Vary linkers across paragraphs — don't repeat the same one
Open the FCE Exam Practice block below for a Part 2 open-cloze task on discourse markers.
Quick Tip
Keep a personal 'linker bank' of 3 addition, 3 contrast and 3 result markers, and rotate them across your essays.
Exam Hack
When editing, highlight every 'and'/'but' in your draft — replace at least half with a more precise discourse marker.
Common Mistake
Don't follow 'despite' with a full clause ('despite it was raining') — use a noun or -ing form ('despite the rain / despite raining').
Your task
Complete the RUoE Part 2 practice below, filling each gap with the correct discourse marker.
Example
Gap: 'The scheme is expensive. ___, it has already cut waste by 30%.' Logic = contrast → 'However' or 'Nevertheless' fits; 'Moreover' would be wrong because it signals addition, not contrast.
Practice · Section 8
8–10 minFill in the blank
Question 1.The plan is expensive; ___, it should save money long-term.
Question 2.Sales fell sharply. ___, two shops closed.
Question 3.___ the rain, the match went ahead.
Question 4.The hotel was cheap. ___, it was very clean.
Question 5.___ she was tired, she finished the report.
Q1.One-word formal linker meaning 'despite what was just said':
Q2.Linker phrase for cause → effect (2 words): 'As a ___'
Q3.Preposition-style contrast word that takes a noun/-ing, not a clause:
Writing · Section 9
5 minPut it in writing
Your task
Write a 150-word paragraph comparing two ways of studying (alone vs in groups), using at least ONE linker each for addition, contrast and result.
Show model answer
Studying alone allows for total concentration and a personalised pace. Moreover, it avoids the scheduling conflicts that group study often creates. However, working in a group brings the benefit of shared explanations when a concept is unclear. As a result, weaker topics often get clarified faster in a group setting. Although solitary study suits self-disciplined learners best, many students find that a mix of both methods works well: independent revision followed by group discussion to check understanding. In fact, research suggests this combined approach improves retention more than either method alone. Despite the extra coordination it requires, group revision, when balanced with solo study, tends to produce the strongest exam results overall.
Speaking · Section 10
10–15 minMake it a real conversation
Roleplay
1:1 online task. Teacher gives two opposing statements on a topic; student must connect them using a DIFFERENT linker each time (contrast, then result, then addition).
Useful phrases
- • That's true; however, ...
- • As a result of that, ...
- • Moreover, I'd add that ...
- • Although that's the case, ...
- • In fact, the opposite can also be true because ...
- PriyaThe new policy is unpopular. ___, the government insists it's necessary.
- Tom_______________
- PriyaCosts have risen sharply. ___, several small businesses have closed.
- Tom_______________
Teacher notes
Optional · Teacher-led
Teacher Activities
Two fast 1:1 drills for automatic, register-appropriate linker use. ~14 min total
FCE Exam Practice · Section 11
20–30 minReal FCE tasks
Cambridge B2 First · Reading & Use of English · Part 2. Open cloze focused on discourse markers. Teacher Mode explains why each answer fits the logic and register.
Read the text and think of the word which best fits each gap. Use only one word in each gap.
Several companies have recently trialled a four-day working week. first, many managers were sceptical about productivity. , the results have been largely positive. Employees report feeling less stressed. addition, absenteeism has fallen noticeably. a result, several firms plan to make the change permanent. some employees worried about workload, most now say tasks are simply organised more efficiently. though a few industries remain cautious, the overall trend is toward wider adoption. the initial doubts, the scheme has proven more successful than expected. more, staff satisfaction surveys show a sharp rise in morale.
Homework · Section 12
Take-homeTake it home
Linker upgrade
Rewrite 5 sentences replacing 'and'/'but' with a more precise discourse marker.
- 1. The film was long and it was boring. →
- 2. She studied hard but she failed. →
- 3. Prices rose and shops lost customers. →
- 4. It was raining but we went out. →
- 5. The plan is risky and it could fail. →
Linker bank
Build a personal bank of 3 linkers each for contrast, addition, and result — with one example sentence per linker.
- Contrast x3 + examples
- Addition x3 + examples
- Result x3 + examples
Recap · Section 13
2–3 minWhat you've learned
- Discourse markers signal HOW ideas connect: contrast, addition, cause-effect, concession.
- Overusing 'and'/'but' limits your Organisation score — aim for a controlled range.
- Match register: 'nevertheless' (formal) vs 'but still' (informal).
- Check the grammar after each linker: 'despite' + noun/-ing, 'although' + clause.
- Plan the logical shape of your argument before choosing linkers.
- Vary linkers across paragraphs rather than repeating the same one.